政(zheng)治學(xue)·制度·察舉
漢(han)(han)代的(de)(de)(de)選(xuan)官(guan)(guan)制度(du)。“察舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)”就(jiu)(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)選(xuan)拔,由(you)(you)地(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)向(xiang)朝(chao)廷(ting)薦(jian)(jian)(jian)舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)。過(guo)(guo)去認為(wei)(wei),這種選(xuan)官(guan)(guan)制度(du)源于西(xi)周(zhou)的(de)(de)(de)選(xuan)士(shi)制度(du)。西(xi)周(zhou)選(xuan)士(shi),有鄉(xiang)(xiang)舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)里(li)選(xuan),又(you)有諸侯貢(gong)士(shi)。據《周(zhou)禮·地(di)(di)官(guan)(guan)》記(ji)載,各鄉(xiang)(xiang)三年(nian)組織一(yi)次 “大比”,以(yi)考察鄉(xiang)(xiang)人(ren)(ren)的(de)(de)(de)“德行(xing)(xing)(xing)道藝”,選(xuan)拔賢(xian)(xian)能; 又(you)據《禮記(ji)·射義》 記(ji)載,諸侯每年(nian)都(dou)必須(xu) “貢(gong)士(shi)” 于天(tian)子,即將優秀(xiu)人(ren)(ren)才貢(gong)獻(xian)給(gei)(gei)朝(chao)廷(ting)。這種 “舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)” 和“貢(gong)”,實際上(shang)(shang)就(jiu)(jiu)(jiu)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)由(you)(you)下(xia)(xia)往(wang)(wang)上(shang)(shang)的(de)(de)(de)推薦(jian)(jian)(jian)方(fang)(fang)(fang)式(shi),后(hou)(hou)代將其(qi)稱為(wei)(wei) “薦(jian)(jian)(jian)舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)”,以(yi)與設科考試的(de)(de)(de)選(xuan)官(guan)(guan)制度(du) (即科舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)) 相(xiang)區別。西(xi)周(zhou)王朝(chao)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)否實行(xing)(xing)(xing)過(guo)(guo) “鄉(xiang)(xiang)舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)里(li)選(xuan)” 和 “諸侯貢(gong)士(shi)”的(de)(de)(de)推薦(jian)(jian)(jian)制度(du),現在(zai)還難以(yi)確證,但西(xi)漢(han)(han)王朝(chao)實行(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de)(de) “察舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)” 卻是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)“舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)” 與 “貢(gong)”相(xiang)結合的(de)(de)(de)產物,既要(yao)鄉(xiang)(xiang)里(li)評舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju) (基層(ceng)評議),又(you)須(xu)郡國選(xuan)送 (地(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)推薦(jian)(jian)(jian))。漢(han)(han)高(gao)(gao)祖打下(xia)(xia)江山后(hou)(hou),曾(ceng)發布過(guo)(guo)一(yi)道著名(ming)的(de)(de)(de)《求賢(xian)(xian)詔(zhao)》,要(yao)求各郡長官(guan)(guan)推薦(jian)(jian)(jian)“賢(xian)(xian)士(shi)大夫(fu)”。漢(han)(han)文(wen)帝(di)也曾(ceng)下(xia)(xia)詔(zhao)“察舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)” 賢(xian)(xian)良(liang)方(fang)(fang)(fang)正、直言極諫之士(shi),漢(han)(han)武(wu)帝(di)又(you)詔(zhao)令天(tian)下(xia)(xia) “察舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)”孝(xiao)廉和秀(xiu)才,“察舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)”便成為(wei)(wei)漢(han)(han)代選(xuan)官(guan)(guan)的(de)(de)(de)主要(yao)方(fang)(fang)(fang)式(shi),其(qi)科目有孝(xiao)廉、秀(xiu)才、賢(xian)(xian)良(liang)文(wen)學(xue)、賢(xian)(xian)良(liang)方(fang)(fang)(fang)正、孝(xiao)悌力田(tian)等(deng)。被薦(jian)(jian)(jian)舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)給(gei)(gei)朝(chao)廷(ting)者有時須(xu)經過(guo)(guo)皇(huang)(huang)帝(di) “策問(wen)” 或朝(chao)廷(ting)考核(he),然后(hou)(hou)按等(deng)第高(gao)(gao)下(xia)(xia)授(shou)官(guan)(guan)。董仲(zhong)舒、公孫弘都(dou)因(yin) “對策” 正中皇(huang)(huang)帝(di)下(xia)(xia)懷(huai)而(er)平(ping)步青云(yun)。但皇(huang)(huang)帝(di) “策問(wen)”和朝(chao)廷(ting)考核(he)并非定(ding)制,主要(yao)還是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)地(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)推薦(jian)(jian)(jian),故 “察舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)”是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)否得(de)人(ren)(ren),在(zai)相(xiang)當程度(du)上(shang)(shang)就(jiu)(jiu)(jiu)取決(jue)于郡國長官(guan)(guan)的(de)(de)(de)個人(ren)(ren)素質。“察舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)” 的(de)(de)(de)流弊也就(jiu)(jiu)(jiu)在(zai)這里(li): 人(ren)(ren)情難免(mian)。在(zai)中國,一(yi)種理論上(shang)(shang)很(hen)好的(de)(de)(de)制度(du),在(zai)實踐中往(wang)(wang)往(wang)(wang)適得(de)其(qi)反,原因(yin)就(jiu)(jiu)(jiu)在(zai)人(ren)(ren)情無(wu)孔不入。因(yin)此(ci),盡管后(hou)(hou)來的(de)(de)(de)科舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)制度(du)弊竇叢生,有人(ren)(ren)曾(ceng)呼吁恢復西(xi)周(zhou)的(de)(de)(de) “貢(gong)舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)” 或漢(han)(han)代的(de)(de)(de) “察舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)”,但絕(jue)大多數人(ren)(ren) (尤其(qi)是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)平(ping)民) 還是(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)寧要(yao) “分數面(mian)前人(ren)(ren)人(ren)(ren)平(ping)等(deng)” 的(de)(de)(de)科舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)考試,而(er)不要(yao) “鄉(xiang)(xiang)舉(ju)(ju)(ju)(ju)里(li)選(xuan)” 的(de)(de)(de)推薦(jian)(jian)(jian)制度(du)。
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